Karishma Post 7

Over a while, our plant (the Brassica oleracea) reproduced sexually. The Brassica oleracea plants are also known as angiosperms. Angiosperms are a specific type of plant that has flower structures on them. In order to reproduce, the flower must primarily be pollinated. Angiosperm plants can be pollinated in two ways: self-pollination or cross-pollination. During pollination the pollen transfers from the anther (male reproductive part) to the stigma (female reproductive part). Afterward, the stigma carries the pollen down a tube known as a style to the ovary. In the ovary, there is an ovule. Once the pollen reaches the ovule, it can fertilize to form an embryo. This embryo grows into a seed which will later be dispersed and grow to form another plant. 

This is the plant before it has been dissected. All parts remain intact.

This shows all parts of the flower as it would be visible in the wild. 

                                              

This is the plant with all the petals stripped off. It is under a dissection microscope so we can clearly view all the reproductive organs that are present in the flower. This picture shows the pistil and stigma which are both female reproductive organs. You can also see the stamen and anthers which are both the male reproductive organs. Flowers, such as this, that contain both female and male reproductive organs are considered perfect. 

This is a picture of the magnified male reproductive organs in the flower: stamen and anthers. The anther the little pointed thing on the tip of the stamen (looks a little like an elf shoe). The inside of the anther contains pollen that would fertilize the female gametes and eventually form a seed. During cross-pollination, the pollen is carried through a certain vector, whether that be wind or bees. 

Here, the stamen and anthers have been stripped off and we are looking at the female reproductive system also known as the carpel. The carpel is a stalk (also known as a style) and a sticky tip which is also known as the stigma. Since the stigma is adhesive, pollen sticks onto it. 

This is pollen from the plant under a light compound microscope with a magnification of 100x. These pollen particles are what fertilize the female gametes. Once fertilized, they form a seed that would later grow into a plant. 

Joshua Post 7

Angiosperms are types of plants that have flower structures on them. Flowers are the special, delicate structures for reproduction. The reproduction of angiosperms is known as sexual. This is because they contain the male parts that make pollen and the female parts that make ovules. The male part is known as the stamen, which has something called an anther at the end of it. The female part is known as the pistil, which also has the stigma at the end of it. Angiosperms must go through a process known as pollination before they can reproduce. Angiosperm pollination can be self-pollination, where it pollinates itself, and cross-pollination, where a vector transports pollen from one plant which fertilizes another. During pollination, the pollen from the male part of the flower known as the anther has to be taken to the end of the female stigma. The stigma then carries the pollen down in a tube known as the style, so it can reach the ovary. Once the pollen reaches ovule, it can fertilize a female gamete. After the gamete has been fertilized, an embryo is formed and the growing ovule begins to grow into a seed. The seed is then dispersed in many different ways, ensuring the reproduction and survival of the plant species. 

Here, we see an intact Brassica Oleracea flower. None of the flowers parts have been ripped off of it yet and it remains as it would in the wild. Here, we can see the stamens and the anthers. Along with that we can see the petals of the flowers and the pistil, which is the female part of the flower. 

Here, we are seeing the plant under a dissection microscope. We clearly see the pistil and stigma, which are part of the female reproductive system. We also see the stamens and the anthers which are a part of the male reproductive system. When a plant has both the female and the male reproductive systems, it is known as perfect. In some species, they are on different flowers, and even on different plants. In this case,  the pollen would have to reach the female system by transportation through vectors or the wind.  In this photograph, the petals of this Brassica Oleracea have been completely removed to expose the reproductive systems. 

In this photograph, we are looking at the female reproductive sections of this plant. The stamens and anthers have been ripped off. We see the pistil, which has some visible pollen on the stigma. In reproduction, the pollen on the stigma would be taken down to the ovary through the style where it would fertilize a female gamete and form a seed. The pollen can adhere to the stigma, which is a way of catching pollen that is flying by fast in the wind. 

Here, we are looking at the male reproductive parts of the Brassica Oleracea. This part is made up of the stamens and the anthers. The anthers are the tiny things at the tip of the stamens that contain pollen on them. This pollen is the pollen that is used to fertilize the female gametes and form a seed. Often times, pollen has to be carried through vectors or by the wind to fertilize far flowers. This would be the case with cross-pollinating plants. Self-pollinating plants contain both male and female reproductive systems. 

This is a close up of pollen from the Brassica Oleracea that we have been looking at. We are seeing these particles under a compound light microscope under magnification 100x. These little particles are those that fertilize the female gametes which results in a seed. These seeds are then dispersed which ensures the reproduction and survival of the species. 

Joshua Post 6

Since the day we planted our plants, they have been growing. They have grown a lot since then, and that is due to various cellular processes. Those very important cellular processes are know as Mitosis, Photosynthesis, and Cellular Respiration. They all play a big role in the growth of our Cabbage plants in regards to biomass.

Mitosis is a very important process most animal and plant cells undergo. Before mitosis, our plants cells must go through interphase. First, the cells grow in size and build organelles. Then, the cells DNA is copied and microtubules form. The chromosomes, which is DNA wrapped up with histone proteins, are condensed during the first stage of mitosis, called prophase. During the third phase of mitosis, anaphase, the copies of chromosomes are pulled apart and each side of the parent cell has a copy of identical genetic information. During a process that comes after mitosis, called cytokinesis, a cell wall must form in between the new cells. This results in two daughter cells that result from the parent cell. This is the main way that our plant is adding biomass because the cells in our plants structures are undergoing mitosis every day. This results in more cells, which expands tissues, which results in more biomass. Our plants derive the energy to do this from ATP, a molecule made during photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

During photosynthesis, the chloroplast and chlorophyll in the plant cells take in solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water to convert to glucose and oxygen (6CO2 + 2H2O --> C6H12O2 + 6H2O). When light hits the plant, it excites the chlorphyll, which is a light absorbing pigment in the chlorplasts, and enzymes begin breaking apart water molecules. The hydrogen and oxygen molecules travel in a electron transport chain along the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplasts. NADPH is then created from NADP+, and ATP is also created through enzyme ATP synthase. These are the products of the light dependent reactions, meaning light energy was required to drive them. The light independent reactions build sugars using the ATP and NADPH made in the light dependent reactions. These help the plant grow in biomass because they provide energy for the cells to undergo mitosis. Cellular respiration also produces ATP.

In the process of cellular respiration, plants use the products of photosynthesis as the reactants. Cells use glucose and oxygen to yield carbon dioxide, water, and ATP (C6H12O2 + 6H20 --> CO2 + H2O + ATP).  The main idea of cellular respiration is to break down sugars into energy that the plant can use. Cellular respiration usually uses oxygen, and is called aerobic respiration. Cellular respiration however is not limited to only occuring when oxygen is present. When it takes place without oxygen, it is known as fermentation, but only glycolysis can happen. Cellular respiration has 4 stages; glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, link reaction, and electron transport chain. In glycolysis, glucose in the cytoplasm is broken down to two molecules of pyruvate. The pyruvate is broken down to produce acetyl-CoA in a process known as pyruvate oxidation. The Krebs cycle then uses this molecule to produce NADH, FADH2, ATP molecules, and carbon dioxide. The NADH and FADH2 will pass their electrons through the electron transport chain and the result will be ATP, through a process known as oxidative phosphorylation. As the electrons pass down this chain, energy is released and used to pump protons out of the mitochondrial matrix, which results in a gradient. The protons go back into the mitochondrial matrix through an enzyme known as ATP synthase, which makes ATP. The ATP is used for many reasons, but primarily for growth. Biomass is added from this growth.

The Production of enzymes depends mainly on two things, ribonucleic acid and ribosomes. To build enzymes, a mRNA copy has to be transcribed in the nucleus from DNA. RNA polymerase would transcribe the mRNA. The mRNA strand would then leave the nucleus and a ribosome would eventually attach itself to it. The ribosome would then start translating 3 nucleotides at a time, and would start at codons UAG, UGA, or UAA. The tRNA in the ribosome would attach an anti-codon to the mRNA codons and the oligopeptide, which in this case is an enzyme, would begin being assembled. One amino acid is translated from 3 nucleotides. This is how our plants would make enzymes if a message was sent to the nucleus that the production of certain enzymes was needed. After they enzyme is synthesized, it would have to travel to its destination. To do this, the enzyme would first pass through the endoplasmic reticulum. If the enzyme was needed somewhere outside of the cell, it would go to the golgi apparatus where it would be packaged in vesicles and sent to it's destination.

Karishma's Blog Post #6

After growing for six months, our plant has grown exponentially. The majority of the mass that the plants gained comes from carbon.  During the process of photosynthesis, plants also gain carbon dioxide. They take energy from the sun, water, and carbon dioxide. They use all these nutrients to convert into glucose and oxygen. When the sunlight hits the chloroplasts, it activates an enzyme that causes water molecules to break apart. Due to this, the hydrogen ions and free electrons convert NADP+ to NADPH which is used during light-independent reactions. During light-independent reactions, plants build up sugar from carbon dioxide and products from light-dependent reactions (ATP and NADPH) More glucose can also come from ATP since ATP assists the plants in making more glucose.

Plants also utilize cellular respiration. The plants obtain some of their carbon from animal cellular respiration. Animals take in oxygen and sugar that is made when plants undergo photosynthesis and convert it into carbon dioxide along with energy (ATP) and water. Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondrion of the cell. During cellular respiration, plants fix carbon dioxide. They also break down sugar into usable energy for the cell (ATP). Cellular respiration occurs when light is scarce.

This all helps the plant grow in biomass. From both, cellular respiration and photosynthesis, plants can take in and use carbon dioxide that would contribute to the increase of biomass in plants. Additionally, plant cells divide (cell division). During cell division, the cell will start to duplicate the genetic material when chromosomes attach to each other to form sister chromosomes. During metaphase, these chromosomes will line up along the equator of the cell. In anaphase, the chromatids start to split apart and move to different poles. Afterward, the cell goes through telophase and cytokinesis. Here the two cells pinch together and two daughter cells are formed. This process of mitosis occurs millions of times inside one living organism. As an organism gains new cells, its mass would grow.

When the plant is in need, it can easily make necessary enzymes. Enzymes are a certain type of protein that catalyzed chemical reactions. Since enzymes are proteins, they are made in the same way as proteins. Therefore, it is the same exact process. Once the signal is sent to the nucleus that the cell is in need of the certain enzyme, the DNA code for that specific enzyme gets copied by RNA polymerase. The messenger RNA (mRNA) leaves the nucleus of the cell and enters the cytoplasm. Here it comes into contact with the ribosomes. The ribosomes attach to the RNA and read each codon (three nucleotide bases) in order to select the necessary amino acid. Additionally, tRNA attaches itself to each codon before it goes through the ribosomes in order to ensure the RNA to confirm it is choosing the correct amino acids.  Once the stop codon is reached in the RNA, the amino acid is formed and the amino acid goes on to construct the protein that the amino acid is being coded for. That is how enzymes would be made in the plant.

Blog Post 5 Enzo's Seed Story by Joshua Jauregui

Throughout the duration of The Story of The Seed project, Enzo has learned many things that have surprised him. The year-long project has opened his eyes to many different things, even if it brought it's challenges. Enzo has developed an understanding as to how normal garden plants partake in the different biogeochemical cycles. Additionally, his comprehension towards ecological succession has grown. One thing that surprised Enzo during the project so far was the rate at which his team's plants grew. Specifically, he was surprised at the experimental plant groups growth. Another thing that has amazed him is that his team's experiment actually worked, because he anticipated that the materials they had gotten would be insufficient. Enzo also greatly appreciated the opportunity to have his friends as teammates for the project. They made him laugh while they worked, and that really motivated him. Enzo was left confused by a couple of things as well. One thing that made him think deeper was how biogeochemical cycles actually affect plants and the environment around it. Another thing that made him think deeper was getting the materials for his experiment that fit their exact needs. While Enzo finds it bittersweet that the first half of the project is done, he anticipates what awaits him in the next Story of The Seed project chapter.

Blog Post 5 Dasha's Seed Story by Karishma Miranda

Throughout the Story of the Seed, Dasha has learned many valuable lessons that would aid in her future, especially in biology class. Some of these lessons include factors that contribute to a plants survival along with the main difference between abiotic and biotic factors. She was extremely amazed when she found out about how long it took the plant to grow. Her teams plant only started growing after six weeks. The whole process made Dasha think a little deeper. She had to think a lot about the germination of the seed and how it all came together plus, identifying the parts of the plants. Most of the laughs during this project came from collaborating with her teammates. After semester one, Dasha has gained a new perspective into germination by participating in the Story of the Seed project.

Enzyme Lab Report

Our experiment was testing whether or not an increased amount of enzyme concentration would result in a higher rate of reaction. We hypothesized that if enzyme concentration is increased, then a higher rate of reaction and more product will be produced. We used a variety of materials for our experiment. These materials would be grass, a mortar and pestle, test tubes, test tube holder, hydrogen peroxide, safety glasses, water, a small rule, a 10 mL syringe, 1 paper towel, a digital balance, and our effort. We conducted our experiment by making five different enzyme concentrations by diluting the same amount of enzyme volume an increasing amount. The first concentration was 3 mL of enzyme and each concentration would be diluted by extracting 0.6 mL of enzyme each next test tube and adding 0.6 mL of water to keep the volume of each the same. After we had all of our concentrations, we added 1 mL of hydrogen peroxide to each concentration and measured how much product was produced form each. After collecting all of the data from each of our concentrations, we came to the conclusion that, yes, in support of our hypothesis, an increased amount of enzyme concentration does in fact result in a higher rate of reaction (or product being produced). Our findings are significant because they display a support to our hypothesis and set a foundation for anyone that would want to re-create our experiment in the future. 

Introduction:
Most enzymes function by weakening bonds which then in turn lowers the activation energy needed for a reaction to take place. Enzymes, by doing this, can speed up reactions to up to thousands of times faster. Enzymes are specific to what they catalyze, and this means that usually an enzyme can only catalyze one substance. Since enzymes speed up reactions by weakening bonds, there is also variables that can further increase the rate at which an enzyme functions. There are four; temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, and substrate concentration. Keeping this in mind, we wanted to know how enzyme concentration directly affects the rate of a reaction. To find the answer, first we first we developed a hypothesis. We hypothesized that a higher enzyme concentration would result in a higher rate of reaction. Then we designed our experiment in order to directly test the variable. We used a natural enzyme found in plants called peroxidase and the substrate that is hydrogen peroxide. To test our hypothesis, we made five different concentrations of the enzyme and added the substrate to it. We the recorded what we saw.

Purpose: The purpose of our experiment was to test whether or not a higher enzyme concentration would result in a higher rate of reaction and more product being produced.
Hypothesis: If a higher enzyme concentration results in a higher rate of reaction, then it will result in more product from the catalytic reaction.
Procedure:
Materials:
5 glass test tubes
Test tube rack/Holder
Fresh picked grass
Water
Mortar and pestle
Hydrogen peroxide
10 mL syringe
Small ruler
Safety glasses
1 paper towel for filtration
Digital Balance
Cell phone timer

Steps:
Weight 3 grams of grass on digital balance
Put grass in mortar with water
Grind grass keeping a 3 gram to 10 mL of water ratio
Filter enzyme using paper towel
Put 5 test tubes on test tube rack
Make five different concentrations of enzyme by diluting with water in test tubes
Measure 1 mL of Hydrogen peroxide
Put safety glasses on
Put Hydrogen Peroxide in each concentration one by one
Record product produced over the span of 1 minute by using small ruler

Results:

Sec | Concentration	20%	40%	60%	80%	100%
10 seconds	0.5	0.7	1.0	2.5	2.9
20 seconds	0.9	1.2	1.8	4.0	5.2
30 seconds	1.4	1.8	2.7	5.3	7.1
40 seconds	1.7	2.3	3.5	6.4	8.5
50 seconds	2.0	2.9	4.2	7.1	9.7
60 seconds	2.6	3.4	4.9	7.8	10.7

Data Analysis:
Out of the five concentrations, all reactions produce product. However, the highest enzyme concentration produced the most product due to it's faster rate of reaction, and so on. The concentration that was 3 mL enzyme and 0 mL water produced 10.9 cm of product, the concentration that was 2.4 mL enzyme and 0.6 mL water produced 7.8 cm of product, and the concentration that was 1.8 mL enzyme and 1.2 mL water produced 4.9 cm of product. Finally, the concentration that was 1.2 mL enzyme and 1.8 mL water produced 3.4 cm product and the concentration that was 0.6 mL enzyme and 2.4 mL water produced 2.6 cm of product. This line graph correctly displays our data because it shows a line for each concentration with its product at every 10 seconds and the final amount it produced. The chart explains product being produced by each concentration over the course of one minute as well. We created the graph to display that yes, a higher enzyme concentration does result in a higher rate of reaction and more product being produced. We also created it to display a "total" amount of product produced from each concentration.

Conclusion:

In this experiment, we were given the four variables that affect the rate of reaction between an enzyme and substrate, temperature, pH, enzyme concentration and substrate concentration. From these four, we had to formulate a hypothesis and create a experiment testing the effect that the variable has on the rate of reaction. We chose to conduct our experiment on enzyme concentration. Specifically, how enzyme concentration would affect the rate of reaction and the product being released by the enzyme and the substrate. We hypothesized that if enzyme concentration has an effect on the rate of reaction, then the higher the concentration, the higher the rate of reaction will be and the more product it will produce from the reaction. For the design of our experiment, we decided to have the same volume of enzyme in 5 different trials, but have each diluted with water by 20%, increasing by each trial. We had 5 trials in total, meaning we had one concentration that was 3 mL enzyme and 0 mL diluted with water, one that was 2.4 mL enzyme and 0.6 diluted with water, one that was 1.8 mL enzyme and 1.2 mL diluted with water, one that was 1.2 mL enzyme and 1.8 mL diluted with water, and finally, one that was 0.6 enzyme and 2.4 diluted with water. From then, we added 1 mL of hydrogen peroxide to each concentration and recorded the results we observed. We recorded each concentration for a minute, and measured the product it produced using centimeters. We recorded that the concentration with 100% enzyme produced 10.7 cm of product, the 80% enzyme and 20% water produced 7.8 cm of product, the 60% enzyme and 40% water produced 4.9 cm of product, the 40% enzyme and 60% water produced 3.4 cm of product, and finally, the 20% enzyme and 80% water produced 2.6 cm of product. From this, we notice something that could be a correlation to what we hypothesized. 

In the data we retrieved, we see that the as the enzyme concentration increases, the product being produced increased as well. These results indicate that, in support of our hypothesis, a higher enzyme concentration did in fact result in a higher rate of reaction and more product being produced. With an increased enzyme concentration, came an increased amount of product being produced from the reaction. We believe that these result suggest that yes, a higher enzyme concentration does result in a higher rate of reaction overall. Of course, if this is true, then a lower enzyme concentration in turn results in a lower rate of reaction. These were the results we expected to get because we knew that if there is a higher enzyme concentration, then there is more enzyme to attach to the substrate, which then in turn results in more product being produced which indicates a higher rate of reaction.  We anticipated these results because it is a scientific fact that a higher enzyme concentration results in a higher rate rate of reaction. Our findings are significant because they show support to our hypothesis and display support to previously stated scientific information. Our findings connect to the real world because, most likely, a type of higher enzyme concentration, no matter the type of enzyme, will be probable to produce a higher rate of reaction. Based on our findings, scientific information, and the manner in which we conducted our experiment, anyone should be able to re-create our experiment and get similar findings. 

While we conducted our experiment, our minds were running all over the place, asking all types of questions related to the experiment. One of the most significant questions that came to mind happened to be, what would happen if substrate concentration was the one being increased instead of enzyme concentration? We came to the conclusion that if substrate concentration were being increased, it would show similar results to that of increased enzyme concentration, but certainly not identical. The graph of the increased substrate concentration would have a “leveling off” as it reaches maximum activity. Our experiment was not necessarily conducted in the most efficient manner, but it was the most efficient manner we would get it to at the moment. If we could go back, we would change the volume of the enzyme concentration in each test tube. This was because as the concentrations increased, it got more and more difficult to measure the product being produced as it began to overflow. This was about the only difficulty we encountered, but we used our problem solver minds to solve the problem. To keel measuring after it overflowed, we just measured how much would come out of the top of the test tube. Another minor thing that went wrong was that, when we were trying to filter our enzyme with a paper towel, the paper towel absorbed everything, and we had to make a new batch of enzyme. Other than those two explained, our experiment ran pretty smoothly. 

Bibliography: 

“Grass .” WHYY, whyy.org/episodes/grass-wars-bermuda-vs-fescue/.

“Hydrogen Peroxide.” Target, www.target.com/p/hydrogen-peroxide-topical-solution-usp-32oz-up-up-153/-/A-15115908.

Test Tube Rack. www.fishersci.com/shop/products/locking-test-tube-rack-blue/14955035.